Oligopeptide Database

Adiponectin is a 244-amino acid adipokine that enhances insulin sensitivity, exerts anti-inflammatory effects, and protects against cardiovascular disease through AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 signaling.

A 52-amino acid vasoactive peptide that promotes vasodilation, natriuresis, and has protective roles in cardiovascular and renal physiology.

Alpha-CGRP is a potent vasodilatory neuropeptide implicated in migraine pathophysiology and neurogenic inflammation through CLR/RAMP1 receptor signaling.

Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone is a 13-amino acid peptide derived from proopiomelanocortin that regulates skin pigmentation, appetite, and energy homeostasis through melanocortin-4 receptor signaling.

A 37-amino acid pancreatic peptide co-secreted with insulin that regulates glucose homeostasis by slowing gastric emptying and suppressing glucagon.

Angiotensin I is a decapeptide generated from angiotensinogen by renin, serving as the obligate substrate for angiotensin-converting enzyme in the renin-angiotensin system.

A detailed review of angiotensin II, an octapeptide that drives blood pressure regulation, fluid balance, and cardiovascular remodeling through AT1 and AT2 receptors.

Bacterial strategies for evading antimicrobial peptide activity including membrane modification, protease upregulation, efflux-mediated export, and intracellular sequestration.

Apelin is an adipokine peptide that activates the APJ receptor to regulate cardiovascular function, fluid homeostasis, and energy metabolism.

A 28-amino acid cardiac peptide that promotes natriuresis, diuresis, and vasodilation to regulate blood volume and pressure.

Beta-Endorphin is a potent endogenous opioid peptide that modulates pain perception, stress response, and reward pathways through mu-opioid receptor activation.

Bombesin is a 14-amino acid neuropeptide isolated from amphibian skin that potently stimulates gastrin release and gastrointestinal motility via the BB2 receptor.

An exploration of bradykinin, a nonapeptide kinin that regulates vasodilation, inflammation, and pain signaling through B1 and B2 receptors.

Brain natriuretic peptide is a cardiac neurohormone that promotes natriuresis and vasodilation, serving as a critical biomarker and therapeutic target in heart failure.

Calcitonin is a 32-amino acid peptide hormone produced by thyroid C cells that regulates calcium homeostasis and serves as a therapeutic agent for osteoporosis and Paget disease of bone.

Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide composed of beta-alanine and L-histidine, functioning as an intracellular pH buffer, antioxidant, and anti-glycation agent in muscle and brain tissue.

An analysis of the calcitonin gene-related peptide pathway in migraine pathophysiology, including monoclonal antibody therapies and small-molecule gepants targeting CGRP receptors.

Cholecystokinin is a 33-amino acid gastrointestinal peptide that regulates digestion, gallbladder contraction, and satiety signaling through CCK-A and CCK-B receptors.

Molecular pharmacology and clinical significance of cholecystokinin-A (CCK-A) and cholecystokinin-B (CCK-B) receptors in satiety, anxiety, and gastrointestinal function.

CCK-8 is the eight-amino acid bioactive fragment of cholecystokinin responsible for satiety signaling, pancreatic enzyme secretion, and gallbladder contraction.

A 41-amino acid hypothalamic peptide that initiates the stress response via the HPA axis and CRF receptor signaling.

Structural and pharmacological principles of cyclic peptide drug design including head-to-tail cyclization, stapled peptides, and strategies for enhanced cell permeability.

Desmopressin is a synthetic vasopressin analog featuring a D-arginine substitution at position 8, functioning as a selective V2 receptor agonist used in the treatment of central diabetes insipidus.

A review of GIP/GLP-1 dual receptor agonists for obesity treatment, including retatrutide and survodutide, with analysis of clinical trial outcomes and weight loss efficacy.

Dynorphin A is an endogenous opioid peptide with high kappa-opioid receptor selectivity involved in pain modulation, reward, and dysphoric states.

Endomorphin-1 is the most potent endogenous mu-opioid receptor agonist identified to date, with high selectivity for pain modulation and analgesia.

Endothelin-1 is a 21-amino acid vasoactive peptide and the most potent endogenous vasoconstrictor identified, acting through ETA and ETB receptors to regulate vascular tone and tissue homeostasis.

Galanin is a 30-amino acid neuropeptide involved in pain modulation, feeding behavior, and cognition through GalR1, GalR2, and GalR3 receptors.

Gastrin is a gastrointestinal peptide that stimulates gastric acid secretion through CCK-B receptors, existing primarily as G-17 and G-34 molecular forms produced by G cells.

Ghrelin is a 28-amino acid octanoylated peptide hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite through the growth hormone secretagogue receptor.

An analysis of the GLP-1 receptor cryo-EM structure, receptor activation mechanisms, and biased signaling pathways relevant to metabolic drug development.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a 30-amino acid incretin hormone that enhances glucose-dependent insulin secretion and serves as the basis for widely prescribed antidiabetic and anti-obesity therapies.

Comprehensive reference for glutathione (GSH), the most abundant tripeptide in mammalian cells, covering molecular structure, biosynthesis, redox chemistry, and clinical significance.

A 44-amino acid hypothalamic peptide that stimulates growth hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary via the GHRH receptor.

An overview of the insulin A-chain, a 21-residue peptide that forms one-half of the bioactive insulin heterodimer critical for glucose homeostasis.

Pharmacological properties and clinical applications of rapid-acting (lispro, aspart) and long-acting (glargine, degludec) insulin analogues for diabetes management.

The 30-amino acid B-chain of insulin forms the structural core of the insulin heterodimer, essential for receptor binding and glucose homeostasis.

Leptin is a 167-amino acid hormone secreted by adipose tissue that signals energy sufficiency to the hypothalamus, suppressing appetite and regulating energy homeostasis.

Leucine-enkephalin is an endogenous pentapeptide neurotransmitter that binds mu and delta opioid receptors to produce analgesic, anxiolytic, and reward-related effects in the central nervous system.

Neurokinin A is a tachykinin peptide that activates NK2 receptors to regulate airway function, gastrointestinal motility, and inflammatory responses.

Neuropeptide Y is a 36-amino acid neuropeptide widely distributed in the central nervous system that functions as a potent appetite stimulator and modulator of stress responses through Y receptor subtypes.

Neurotensin is a 13-amino acid neuropeptide that modulates dopaminergic signaling, regulates thermoregulation, and functions as both a neurotransmitter and gut hormone.

SNAC absorption enhancer technology enables oral GLP-1 receptor agonist delivery through gastric protection and transcellular absorption mechanisms for type 2 diabetes treatment.

A 33-amino acid hypothalamic neuropeptide essential for maintaining wakefulness, with dysfunction causing narcolepsy.

Pharmacological inhibition of oxytocin receptors using peptidic antagonists such as atosiban and barusiban for the management of preterm labor and uterine hypercontractility.

A comprehensive overview of oxytocin, a nonapeptide with a disulfide bridge implicated in social bonding, uterine contraction, and lactation.

An 84-amino acid calcium-regulating hormone with PTH(1-34) as the active fragment, used therapeutically in osteoporosis and hypoparathyroidism.

Amyloid formation and non-native peptide aggregation compromise biologics stability, requiring advanced analytical methods and formulation strategies to maintain therapeutic efficacy.

An overview of peptide-drug conjugates as targeted therapeutics, covering linker chemistry, payload selection, and mechanisms of intracellular drug release.

A review of self-assembling peptide hydrogels including RADA16 and EAK16, covering self-assembly mechanisms, mechanical properties, and tissue engineering applications.

An examination of hepatic peptide metabolism including extraction mechanisms, cytochrome P450 involvement, peptidase activity, and implications for first-pass effect.

Principles and applications of peptide self-assembly into hydrogels, nanofibers, and peptide amphiphile nanostructures for biomedical and materials science applications.

A comprehensive review of factors affecting peptide stability in circulation, including protease degradation pathways, half-life determination methods, and formulation strategies.

Pharmaceutical strategies for enhancing peptide drug stability including lyophilization, surfactant selection, antioxidant incorporation, and pH optimization.

Freeze-thaw cycles induce peptide aggregation and denaturation requiring cryoprotectant optimization and formulation strategies to maintain structural integrity during storage.

Conotoxins and spider venom peptides serve as highly specific ion channel probes and drug discovery leads for neuroscience research and therapeutic development.

Principles of peptide-based vaccine development including epitope prediction, adjuvant selection, and nanoparticle delivery strategies for enhanced immunogenicity.

Tumor-associated antigens and neoantigen peptide vaccines combined with checkpoint inhibitors demonstrate promising immunogenicity and clinical responses across multiple cancer types.

A 36-amino acid gut peptide that suppresses appetite and regulates GI motility through the Y2 receptor as part of the ileal brake mechanism.

A review of peptide-based biosensing platforms including aptamers, molecular imprinted polymers, and lateral flow assays for diagnostic applications.

Radiolabeled peptides and MRI contrast agents enable targeted tumor imaging through receptor-mediated accumulation, improving diagnostic sensitivity and treatment monitoring.

RADA16 self-assembling peptides form hydrogels with antimicrobial activity and hemostatic properties, accelerating tissue repair through biomimetic extracellular matrix support.

An examination of nanoparticle-based delivery systems for therapeutic peptides, covering PLGA, liposomes, and chitosan carriers with sustained release and targeting strategies.

Cell-penetrating peptides and RGD-targeted liposomes enhance drug delivery through receptor-mediated uptake and endosomal escape mechanisms for improved intracellular bioavailability.

Biomaterial functionalization with adhesive peptides enhances cell adhesion and biocompatibility, enabling implant coatings that promote tissue integration and reduce immune rejection.

Molecular principles governing peptide association including coiled-coil assembly, leucine zipper formation, and amyloid fibril nucleation and propagation.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis and caveolae pathways govern peptide-receptor internalization and intracellular trafficking, determining signal termination and therapeutic efficacy.

Prolactin-releasing peptide is a hypothalamic neuropeptide that stimulates prolactin secretion through GPR10 receptor activation in the anterior pituitary.

Resistin is an adipokine that links obesity to insulin resistance and inflammation through AdipoR1 and TLR4 receptor-mediated signaling pathways.

Secretin is a 27-amino acid gastrointestinal peptide and the first hormone ever discovered, primarily stimulating pancreatic bicarbonate secretion to neutralize gastric acid.

Semaglutide is a long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonist approved for type 2 diabetes and obesity management, featuring Aib substitution and a C-18 fatty diacid linker for extended albumin-mediated half-life.

Comparative pharmacological analysis of semaglutide (GLP-1 RA) and tirzepatide (dual GIP/GLP-1 agonist) in the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

An overview of hydrocarbon stapled peptides as cancer therapeutics, covering MDM2/MDMX inhibition, BCL-2 family targeting, and ALRN-6924 clinical development.

Substance K is a tachykinin neuropeptide that activates NK2 receptors to mediate smooth muscle contraction and inflammatory responses in mammalian tissues.

A detailed examination of substance P, an undecapeptide of the tachykinin family that mediates pain transmission and neurogenic inflammation via NK1 receptors.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a hypothalamic tripeptide that stimulates thyrotropin and prolactin secretion, serving as the primary regulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis.

An 11-amino acid cyclic peptide and the most potent vasoconstrictor identified to date, acting through the UT receptor.

VIP is a 28-amino acid neuropeptide mediating vasodilation, secretion, and immune modulation through VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors.

Vasopressin is a 9-amino acid nonapeptide hormone that regulates water reabsorption in the kidney and functions as a neuromodulator of social behavior and stress responses.